Pharmacognosy is the scientific discipline that explores drugs and therapeutic agents derived from natural sources—including plants, animals, fungi, and minerals—by integrating traditional knowledge with modern analytical techniques. This chapter traces the term’s origin to C.A. Seydler’s 1815 Analecta Pharmacognostica and acknowledges earlier uses by J.A.

Schmidt, emphasizing the evolution from empirical herbalism to systematic phytochemical investigation. It outlines the significance of the plant kingdom in supplying food, shelter, and remedies, and reviews humanity’s trial-and-error discovery of medicinal species across ancient civilizations such as Egypt, China, India, Greece, and Rome. The development of pharmacognosy through the early modern era is highlighted by milestones in alkaloid isolation—from Withering’s foxglove studies to Sertürner’s morphine—and the advancement of extraction and analytical methods.

Core areas of the field are defined, including source identification and taxonomy, phytochemical analysis, quality control and standardization, and ethnopharmacology leading to drug discovery. The chapter also distinguishes organized and unorganized crude drugs, surveys botanical, animal, marine, and biotechnological sources, and introduces plant tissue culture techniques for micropropagation and secondary metabolite production. Finally, it underscores pharmacognosy’s multidisciplinary scope—from natural-product chemistry and biotechnology to pharmaceutical applications—and its enduring relevance in discovering, standardizing, and commercializing safe, effective, and sustainable natural therapeutics.

Introduction Pharmacognosy is a distinct scientific discipline dedicated to the comprehensive study of crude drugs and their constituents, all of which are derived

from natural sources—most notably plants, but also animals, fungi and minerals. At its core, pharmacognosy seeks to understand the origin, chemistry, biological activity, quality control and therapeutic applications of these naturally occurring substances. The formal birth of the term “pharmacognosy” dates back to 1815, when the German scientist Adam Joseph von Seydler introduced it in his landmark work, Analecta Pharmacognostica .

In this pioneering volume, Seydler not only catalogued a wide array of crude drugs—ranging from herbal extracts and resins to animal-derived products and mineral compounds—but also laid down the methodological foundations for their systematic examination. His work established pharmacognosy as a rigorous scientific field, one that bridges traditional herbal knowledge with modern analytical techniques such as chromatography, spectroscopy and molecular biology. Today, pharmacognosists continue Seydler’s legacy by employing advanced tools to isolate, characterize and standardize bioactive natural products.

From the identification of novel anticancer alkaloids in rainforest plants to the quality assurance of dietary supplements on the market, the discipline remains indispensable to drug discovery, natural product research and the broader quest for safe, effective—and sustainable—therapeutic agents. Significance of Plants

• Nature always stands as a golden mark to exemplify the outstanding phenomenon of symbiosis.
• The biotic (living things) and abiotic elements (water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, and soil) of nature are all interdependent.
• The plants are indispensable to man for his life.
• The three important necessities of life– food, clothing and shelter and a host of other useful products are supplied to him by the plant kingdom.
• Nature has provided a complete storehouse of remedies to cure all ailments of mankind.
• The knowledge of drugs has accumulated over thousands of years as a result of man’s inquisitive nature so that today we possess many effective means of ensuring health care. Origin of Pharmacognosy Long before humanity emerged, the plant kingdom thrived on Earth, providing the only available remedies for our earliest ancestors. As people gradually grew familiar with their surroundings, they learned—by cautious experimentation—which plants were edible and which could heal. Through trial and error (and, regrettably, occasional fatalities), they discovered that certain species relieved pain, reduced fevers, quelled inflammation, or induced sleep. Poisonous plants, too, found uses—as arrow toxins or, with the right antidotes, as a source of life-saving treatments. Over centuries, this empirical knowledge blossomed into more systematic traditions

across multiple civilizations—China, Egypt, India, Persia, Babylon, Assyria and beyond. Tribal healers and court physicians alike curated extensive pharmacopeias, refining methods of cultivation, harvesting, preparation (infusions, decoctions, poultices) and dosage. These collective efforts laid the groundwork for pharmacognosy: the scientific study of natural drugs.

Etymology and Definition The term “pharmacognosy” derives from the Greek pharmakon (φαρμάκον), meaning “drug” or “medicine,” and gignosko (γινώσκω), “to acquire knowledge.” It was first coined in 1815 by German medical student C. A. Seydler in his doctoral thesis Analecta Pharmacognostica .

Scope of Pharmacognosy Today, pharmacognosy encompasses:

• Source Identification & Botany : Taxonomy, geographical distribution, cultivation and wild collection of medicinal plants (and other natural sources, including animals, fungi, marine organisms and minerals).
• Phytochemical Analysis : Extraction, isolation and characterization of bioactive constituents using techniques such as chromatography, spectroscopy and mass spectrometry.
• Quality Control & Standardization : Evaluation of sensory, physical and chemical properties; assessment of purity, potency and safety; and the development of pharmacopoeial monographs.
• Ethnopharmacology & Drug Discovery : Investigation of traditional uses to guide the search for new therapeutic agents, from antimicrobial peptides to anticancer alkaloids.
• Supplementary Materials : Study of excipients and additives (e.g., suspending agents, flavoring agents, filtering aids), as well as naturally derived immunomodulators, allergens, hallucinogens, pesticides and contraceptive precursors. By uniting ancient wisdom with modern bioscience, pharmacognosy continues to reveal nature’s vast pharmacopeia—transforming humble herbs and minerals into today’s life-saving medicines. C.A. Seydler, a medical student of Germany, given the name Pharmacognosy from his doctoral thesis entitled Analectica Pharmacognostica 1815. The physician J.A. Schmidt used this name previously in his book Lehrbuch der materia medica in 1811 to describe the study of medicinal plants. J.A. Schmidt Crude drugs are plants or animals or their parts which after collection are subjected only to drying or making them into transverse or longitudinal slices or

peeling them in some cases. They are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have undergone only the processes of collection and drying. The term natural substances refer to those substances found in nature, such as Whole plants or organs of plants, e.g. leaves, flowers, seeds, and barks, or vegetable saps, extracts and secretions Whole animals; glands or other animal organs, extracts, secretions; that have not had changes made in their molecular structure (as found in nature).

Also, means any product that has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other substance or by any other process or treatment beyond what is essential to its proper packing and the prevention of decay or deterioration pending in manufacture. Crude drugs are used infrequently as therapeutic agents; more often their chief principles (derivatives or extractives which contains active constituents) are separated by various means. Also, means any product that has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other Substance or by any other process or treatment beyond what is essential to its proper packing and the prevention of decay or deterioration pending in manufacture.

Crude drugs are used infrequently as therapeutic agents; more often their chief principles (derivatives or extractives which contains active constituents) are separated by various means. Also, means any product that has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other substance or by any other process or treatment beyond what is essential to its proper packing and the prevention of decay or deterioration pending in manufacture. Crude drugs are used infrequently as therapeutic agents; more often their chief principles (derivatives or extractives which contains active constituents) are separated by various means.

History of Pharmacognosy In the earliest eras, human beings foraged for food without knowing which plants were safe to eat. They experimented by sampling various plant parts—tubers, fruits, leaves—and adopted an instinctive “trial-and-error” approach:

• Edibility Testing If no adverse reaction occurred, the plant was deemed edible.
• Medicinal Uses o A plant that induced diarrhea became a purgative. o One that triggered vomiting was used as an emetic. o Those causing fatal poisoning were repurposed as arrow toxins. Preparations were simple: whole plants, infusions, or decoctions. Over time, this empirical knowledge evolved into the foundation of herbal medicine—a practice as ancient as civilization itself. Archaeological and textual evidence show that well before the Common Era, people in China, India, Egypt, and Greece harnessed plants for therapeutic purposes. Ancient Egypt’s Key Medical Scrolls
• Kahun Medical Papyrus (c. 1900 BCE) Focused on women’s health, including obstetric guidance.
• Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE) Detailed surgical procedures and cosmetic recipes.
• Ebers Papyrus (c. 1500 BCE) A four-meter scroll compiling prescriptions featuring some remedies. Frequently Employed Remedies Senna, honey, juniper, pinetarum, cumin, pomegranate root, manna, caraway, coriander, garlic, onion, papyrus extract, myrrh, and many others formed the core pharmacopeia of ancient Egyptian healers. This rich heritage of observation and experimentation laid the groundwork for the sophisticated herbal–pharmacological systems we study and refine today. Ancient China: The Dawn of Herbal Medicine Herbal therapeutics in China trace back over seven millennia, with evidence of medicinal plant use as early as 5000 B.C. Around 2700 B.C., the legendary Emperor Shennong—celebrated as the “Divine Farmer”—compiled the first pharmacopeia, the Pen Ts’ao (sometimes called the Native Herbal). This seminal work catalogued substances—one for each day of

the year—and organized them into three tiers based on their safety and potency:

• “Emperor” Herbs (120 total)
• Food-grade botanicals deemed entirely nontoxic, suitable for everyday use, and often taken for their long-term tonic effects.
• “Minister” Herbs (120 total) Herbs with stronger therapeutic actions; some carried mild toxicity and were prescribed for acute or subacute conditions.
• “Servant” Herbs (125 total) Highly specific remedies—many of which were toxic if misused—principally employed to eliminate pathological stagnation and treat severe disorders over shorter courses. By the Second and Third Centuries A.D., Chinese physicians had begun to systematize clinical practice. Zhang Zhongjing’s Shang Han Lun (“Treatise on Cold-Induced Disorders,” c. 142–220 A.D.) remains the cornerstone of Traditional Chinese Medicine, establishing diagnostic patterns and herbal formulae still in use today. Many of Zhang’s prescriptions formed the basis for Kampo, the Japanese adaptation of Chinese herbalism. As alchemical pursuits flourished during the Six Dynasties period, the study of pharmaceutics expanded beyond plants. Tao Hongjing (456–536 A.D.) assembled his own Pen Ts’ao, describing over natural substances—categorized into minerals (“stones”), insects, animal products, grasses,

trees, fruits and vegetables, and grains (the latter noted for completeness but seldom used therapeutically). This broader classification reflected an evolving pharmaceutical science that would influence East Asian medicine for centuries. In India knowledge of medicinal plants is very old, and medicinal properties of plants are described in Rigveda and in Atharvaveda (3500-1500 B.C.) from which Ayurveda has developed.

The basic medicinal texts in this world region– The ayurvedic writings or treatises can be divided into three main ones Charaka Samhita, Susruta Samhita, Astanga Hrdayam Samhita and three minor ones Sarangadara Samhita , Bhava Prakasa Samhita , Madhava Nidanam Samhita . A large portion of Indian population even today depends on the Indian system of medicine– Ayurveda, An ancient science of life. Ancient India

• Charaka made groups of herbs each of which, according to him, would suffice an ordinary physician’s need.
• Sushrutha arranged herbs in distinct sets based on some of their common properties. Ancient Greece and Rome
• Greek scientists contributed much to the knowledge of natural history.
• Hippocrates (460-370 B.C.), is referred to as father of medicine and is remembered for his famous oath which is even now administered to doctors.
• Aristotle (384-322B.C.), a student of Plato was a philosopher and is known for his writing on animal kingdom.
• Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.), a student of Aristotle, wrote about plant kingdom known as Father of Pharmacognosy
• Dioscorides, a physician who lived in the first century A.D., described medicinal plants, some of which like belladonna, ergot, opium, and colchicum are used even today. He has Written the book “De Materia Medica”.
• Pliny wrote volumes of natural history
• Galen (131 A.D.) devised methods of preparations of plant and animal drugs, known as galenicals, in his honour. Paracelsus Aureolus (1493-1541)– Swiss Physician to develop mineral salts which might have had the potential of being universal curative agents. History of Pharmacognosy: Early Modern Era The 17th and 18th centuries marked the transition from empirical herbalism to systematic extraction and analysis of natural products:
• Nicolas Lemery (1615–1715)
• Pioneered the use of alcohol and other solvents in the isolation of plant constituents, emphasizing reproducible extraction techniques.
• William Withering (1785) After a decade of clinical observation, published his seminal work on the therapeutic effects of foxglove ( Digitalis purpurea ), laying the foundation for modern cardiac glycoside therapy.
• Calumba (1788) This alkaloid-rich root was officially recognized in the pharmacopoeia, illustrating the growing acceptance of plant-derived drugs.
• Jean-François Derosne (1803) Isolated narcotine from opium, demonstrating the feasibility of purifying individual opium alkaloids.
• Friedrich Sertürner (circa 1805) Achieved the first pure alkaloid isolation—morphine—from opium, and established its potent analgesic properties. Development of Pharmacognosy: Alkaloid Discoveries The early 19th century witnessed a rapid succession of alkaloid isolations that defined the era:
• 1817–1819 : First reports of strychnine , emetine , brucine , and piperine .
• 1818 : Pierre-Joseph Pelletier isolated strychnine from both Ignatius beans and nux vomica seeds.
• 1820 : Quinine was extracted, revolutionizing the treatment of malaria.
• 1828 : Posselt & Reimann isolated nicotine from tobacco leaves.
• 1860 : Neumann identified cocaine .
• 1875–1877 : Gerrard & Hardy isolated pilocarpine , followed by Hardy & Gallois’ discovery of ouabain .
• 1887 : Nagai characterized ephedrine .
• 1891 : Küersten isolated podophyllotoxin .
• 1852 : Stass & Otto introduced an improved alkaloid extraction method, refining yields and purity. 20th-Century Milestones Building on these foundations, researchers throughout the 20th century isolated and standardized many cornerstone drugs, including:
• Ergometrine (post-1910)
• Digoxin (1930s)
• Reserpine (1950s)
• Theophylline and Quinidine (early to mid-20th century) Each of these discoveries not only enriched the pharmacopeia but also underscored the enduring importance of natural products as sources of life-saving medicines. Binomial System of Classification Nomenclature The binomial system was founded by the Swedish biologist Linnaeus .In this system, The first name: Start with a capital letter denotes the genus, Second name denotes the species. Carolus Linnaeus (1707- 1778) Swedish botanist and explorer. He studied botany at Uppsala university and explored Swedish Lapland. He is the first to develop principles for defining genera and species of organisms and to create a uniform system for naming them, binomial nomenclature. Genus and species name is followed by author’s name who first described the

species or variety. e. g Artemisia cina Berg., Caryophyllos Sometimes, species name is derived from author’s name, e.g. the species of Cinchona named after Charles Ledger, who brought its seeds from Brazil in 1865, is known as Cinchona ledergiana. The species name is usually chosen to indicate certain characteristics of the plant: Striking characteristic of the plant Cassia acutifolia (sharp pointed leaflets) Cassia angustifolia (narrow leaflets) Glycyrrhiza glabra (glabrous – smooth) Atropa belladonna (bella– beautiful, donna – lady) Characteristic colour Piper nigrum (black) \ Digitalis lutea (yellow) An aromatic plant (certain aroma) Myristica fragrans (nice aroma) Digitalis purpurea (purple) Brassica nigra (black) Caryophyllus aromaticus (refers to aroma) Geographical source Hydrastis Canadensis (growing in Canada) Tamarindus indica (growing in India) Pharmacological activity: Papaver sominferum (inducing sleep) Strychnos nux-vomica (causing vomiting) Ipomoea purge (purgative action) The generic name may indicate certain characters of the plant: e.g. Atropa means fate who cuts the thread of life Glycyrrhiza means gluco= sweet, riza = root, Linum, Linea = thread) Further Progress The progress achieved in botanical studies during the 19th century had a direct influence on pharmacognosy.

Bentham and Hooker –plant classification was further developed in 1862-1863. G. Mendel – important observations on plant hybrids were publishedin1865.

The introduction of microscope, as an important analytical tool, was a landmark advancement in botanical research, especially due to the development of several techniques like clearing, mounting and staining of the preparations. Berg – anatomical atlas of crude drugs was published in 1865. Voehl and Tschirch – reported the anatomical characters of several powdered drugs which proved to be of great significance especially at a period when adulteration in both drugs and food articles was common.

Greenish and Collin – an anatomical atlas of powdered vegetable drugs was compliedin1904 Development of Pharmacognosy Modern Era The development of modern pharmacognosy took place later during the period 1934-1960 by simultaneous application of disciplines like organic chemistry, biochemistry, biosynthesis, pharmacology and modern methods and techniques of analytical chemistry including paper, thin layer and gas chromatography and spectrophotometry. The substances from the plants were isolated, their structures elucidated, and pharmacological active constituents studied. Modern Development of Crude Drugs Some of the important aspects of the natural products that led to the modern development of drugs and pharmaceuticals are as follows: • Isolation of phytochemicals • Structure activity relationship • Drugs obtained by partial synthesis of natural products • Natural products as models for synthesis of new drugs • Drugs of direct therapeutic uses • Biosynthetic pathways • Progress from 1960 onwards • Technical products • Pharmaceutical aids SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY Crude of drugs of natural origin that is obtained from plants, animals and mineral sources and their active chemical constituents are the core subject matter of pharmacognosy.

These are also used for the treatment of various diseases besides being used in cosmetic, textile and food industries. First half of 19thcentury– herbal mixtures, extracts and juices Second half of19th century– pure active constituents. Today applied science of pharmacognosy has a far better knowledge of the active constituents and their prominent therapeutic activity on human beings.

Just like terrestrial germplasm, investigators had also diverted their attention to marine flora and fauna, and wonderful marine natural products and their activities have been studied. Genetic engineering and tissue culture biotechnology have already been successful in producing genetically engineered molecules and bio transformed natural products, respectively. Crude drugs and their products are of economic importance and profitable commercial products.

When these were collected from wild sources, the amount collected could only be small and the price commanded was exorbitantly high. Manyof the industrially important species which produced equally large economic profits are cultivated for large scale crop production. Drug plants, standardized extracts and therapeutically active pure constituents have become a significant market commodity in international trade.

In the light of these glorious facts, scope of pharmacognosy seems to be enormous in the field of medicine, bulk drugs, food supplements, pharmaceutical necessities, pesticides, dyes, tissue culture biotechnology, engineering and so on. The pharmacognostic would serve in various aspects as follows • Academics • Private industry • Government • Undoubtedly, the plant kingdom still holds large number of species with medicinal value which have yet to be discovered. • A lot of plants were screened for their pharmacological values like hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, hypotensive, etc. • Pharmacognostic with a multidisciplinary background are able to make valuable contributions in the field of phytomedicine Discovery of new medicines from plants: Nutraceutical use versus drug development Little work was carried out by the pharmaceutical industry during 1950–1980s; however, during the 1980–1990s, massive growth has occurred. This has resulted in new developments in the area of combinatorial chemistry, new advances in the analysis and assaying of plant materials and a heightened awareness of the potential plant materials as drug leads by conservationists.

New plant drug development programmes are traditionally undertaken by either random screening or an ethnobotanical approach, a method based on the historical medicinal/food use of the plant. One reason why there has been resurgence in this area is that conservationists especially in the United States have argued that by finding new drug leads from the rainforest, the value of the rainforests to society is proven, and that this would prevent these areas being cut down for unsustainable timber use. However, tropical forests have produced only major pharmaceutical drugs of world-wide importance.

It is estimated that a lot more, say about potential drugs of major importance may need to be discovered. These new drugs would be worth $147 billion. It is thought that 125,000 flowering plant species are of pharmacological relevance in the tropical forests.

It takes 50,000 to 100,000 screening tests to discover one profitable drug. Even in developed countries there is a huge potential for the development of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals from herbal materials. For example the UK herbal materia medica contains around species, whereas the Chinese herbal materia medica contains around 7,000 species.

Even up to the beginning of twentieth century, pharmacognosy was more of a descriptive subject akin mainly to botanical science, and it consisted of identification of drugs both in entire and powdered conditions and concerned with their history, commerce, collection, preparation and storage. The development of modern pharmacognosy took place later during the period 1934–1960 by simultaneous application of disciplines like organic chemistry, biochemistry, biosynthesis, pharmacology and modern methods and techniques of analytic chemistry, including paper, thin layer, and gas chromatography and spectrophotometry. The substances from the plants were isolated like

• Strychnine (1817)
• Quinine and caffeine (1820)
• Nicotine (1828)
• Atropine (1833)
• Cocaine (1855) Their structures were elucidated and pharmacological active constituents studied. The development was mainly due to the following four events: 1. Isolation of penicillin in 1928 by William Fleming and large-scale production in 1941 by Florey and Chain. 2. Isolation of resperpine from rauwolfia roots and con-firming its hypotensive and tranquilizing properties. 3. Isolation of vinca alkaloids, especially vincristine and vinblastine. Vincristine was found useful in the treatment of leukaemia. These alkaloids also have anticancer properties. 4. Steroid hormones like progesterone were isolated by partial synthesis from diosgenin and other steroid saponins by Marker’s method. Cortisone and hydro-cortisone are obtained from progesterone by chemical and microbial reaction. This period can also be termed antibiotic age, as besides penicillin, active

antibiotics like streptomycin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline and several hundred antibiotics have been isolated and studied extensively. Sources of Drugs Plant Sources A number of plants have medicinal qualities and have been used for centuries as drugs or drug sources. Although the earliest plant source for drugs was the leaf, other parts of plants (e.g., barks, fruits, roots, stem, wood, seeds, blossoms, bulb etc.) were also later exploited for drug extraction.

Where the product is used without further processing e.g., ground leaves or bark, boiled concoctions or powdered sap, the substance is called crude drug. Table 1: The table below shows some pharmacologically active principles or drugs derived from various parts of a plant. Plant part Drugs Leaves Digoxin, digitoxin (from Digitalis purpurea /foxglove plant); atropine (from Atropa belladonna, Datura metel, Hyoscyamus niger ) Flowers Vincristine, vinblastine (from Vinca rosea ) Fruits Physostigmine (from Physostigma venenosum /calabar bean) Seeds Strychnine (from Nux vomica ) Roots Emetine (from Cephaelis ipecacuanha ); reserpine (from Rauwolfa serpentina ) Bark Quinine (from Cinchona bark ); Conessine (Holarrhena antidysenterica) Stem Tubocurarine (from Chondrodendron tomentosum ); Ephedrine ( Ephedra sinica and Ephedra equisetina ) Animal Sources Many important drugs are derived from animal source.

In most instances, these medicinal substances are derived from the animal’s body secretions, fluid or glands. Insulin, heparin, adrenaline, thyroxin, cod liver oil, musk, beeswax, enzymes, and antitoxins sera are some examples of drugs obtained from animal sources. Like plant products, drugs from animal sources may be crude (unrefined) or refined material.

Table 2: Drug derived from Animal Sources Animal Drugs Cod Liver oil Cod liver oil is a dietary supplement derived from liver of cod fish (Gadidae). As with most fish oils, it contains the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D.

Historically, it was given to children because vitamin D had been shown to prevent rickets, a consequence of vitamin D deficiency. Shark Liver oil Shark liver oil is oil obtained from the livers of sharks. It has been used for centuries as a folk remedy to promote the healing of wounds and as a remedy for respiratory tract and digestive system problems.

It is a rich source of Vitamin A. Silkworm The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori Honeybees Beeswax is a natural wax produced by honeybees of the genus Apis mellifera Honey Marine sources Bioactive compounds from marine flora and fauna have extensive past and present use in the prevention, treatment or cure of many diseases. Coral, sponges, fish, and marine microorganisms produce biologically potent chemicals with interesting anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, and anticancer activity.

For example curacin A from marine cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscule , eleutherobin from coral Eleutherobia sp ., discodermolide from marine sponge Discodermia dissoluta , etc. show potent anti-tumour activity. Tissue Culture Definition Plant tissue culture is a technique used to grow plants or plant cells in a controlled laboratory setting, using a nutrient medium. Applications 1.

Micropropagation: Large-scale plant multiplication. 2. Production of Secondary Metabolites: Production of valuable compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, and phenolics. 3. Plant Breeding: Facilitates hybridization and genetic engineering. 4.

Conservation of Endangered Species: Preservation of rare and endangered plant species. Techniques 1. Meristem Culture: Uses shoot meristems to produce virus-free plants. 2.

Callus Culture: Induction of undifferentiated cell growth (callus) for plant regeneration. 3. Organ Culture: Growth of plant organs (e.g., roots, shoots) in vitro. 4. Protoplast Culture: Isolation and culture of plant cells without cell walls (protoplasts).

Steps 1. Selection of Plant Material: Choose suitable plant parts (e.g., leaves, stems, roots). 2. Sterilization: Surface sterilize the plant material to prevent contamination. 3.

Media Preparation: Prepare a nutrient-rich medium (e.g., MS medium) with plant growth regulators. 4. Inoculation: Transfer the plant material to the culture medium. 5. Incubation: Provide controlled conditions (e.g., temperature, light, humidity) for growth.

Advantages 1. Rapid Plant Multiplication: Large-scale production of plants in a short period. 2. Disease-Free Plants: Production of virus-free plants using meristem culture. 3.

Year-Round Production: Plants can be grown regardless of season or climate. Organized drugs The drugs obtained from the direct parts of the plants and containing cellular tissues are called as organized drugs, e.g. rhizomes, barks, leaves, fruits, entire plants, hairs and fibres. Woods: Quassia, Sandalwood and Red Sandalwood.

Leaves: Digitalis, Eucalyptus, Gymnema, Mint, Senna,Spearmint, Squill, Tulsi, Vasaka, Coca, Buchu, Hamamelis, Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, Tea. Barks: Arjuna, Ashoka, Cascara, Cassia, Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi, Quillia, Wild cherry. Seeds: Nux-vomica, Ispaghula, Castor Roots and Rhizomes: Aconite, Ashwagandha, Dioscorea, Galanga, Ginger, Ginseng, Glycyrrhiza, Podophyllum, Ipecac, Ipomoea, Jalap, Jatamansi, Rauwolfia, Rhubarb, Sassurea, Senega, Shatavari, Turmeric, Valerian, Squill.

Plants and Herbs: Ergot, Ephedra, Bacopa, Andrographis, Unorganized drugs The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as incision, drying or extraction with a solvent and not containing any cellular plant tissues are called unorganized drugs. Dried latex: Dried latex refers to the dried and coagulated sap or milky fluid obtained from certain plants, particularly those in the families Papaveraceae (poppy family) and Euphorbiaceae. This dried latex can contain bioactive compounds with medicinal properties.

Examples of dried latex include: 1. Opium: Obtained from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), it contains alkaloids like morphine and codeine, used for pain relief and other medical purposes. 2. Other plant latices: Various plants produce latex with potential medicinal or industrial uses like Papain Dried Juice: Dried juice refers to a type of unorganized crude drug that is obtained by drying the juice or sap exuded from a plant, often after making an incision in the plant.

These dried juices are characterized by their lack of a defined cellular structure and can be solid, semi-solid, or liquid in their natural state. Examples: Aloe, Kino Dried extracts: A dried extract is a solid pharmaceutical preparation derived from natural sources like plants or animals, where the active constituents are extracted using a solvent and then the solvent is removed, leaving behind a concentrated, dried residue. This dried residue, often in powder or granular form, is a more stable and concentrated form of the original material, suitable for incorporation into tablets, capsules, or other dosage forms.

Examples: Agar, Alginate, Black catechu, Pale catechu, Pectin Waxes: Waxes are defined as esters of long-chain fatty acids and long-chain monohydric alcohols, rather than glycerol like in fats. They are a type of lipid that is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents and are typically solid at room temperature. Waxes are found widely in nature, coating plant surfaces and animal tissues, and are characterized by their hydrophobic (water-repelling) nature Examples: Beeswax, Spermaceti, Carnauba wax Gums: Gums are defined as pathological exudates from plants, primarily consisting of polysaccharides that readily dissolve or swell in water to form viscous solutions or gels.

They are distinct from mucilage’s, which are normal plant products. Gums are used in various pharmaceutical applications due to their thickening, binding, suspending, and emulsifying properties. Examples: Acacia, Guar Gum, Indian Gum, Sterculia, Tragacanth Resins: Resins are defined as solid or semi-solid, amorphous products of plant origin, formed as end products of metabolism.

They are typically insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol. Upon heating, resins soften and eventually melt. Chemically, they are complex mixtures of various compounds including resin acids, resin alcohols, resinotannols, esters, and resenes.

Examples: Asafoetida, Benzoin, Colophony, Guggul, Mastic, Coal tar, Tar, Tolu balsam, Storax, Sandarac. Volatile oil: Volatile oils, also known as essential oils or ethereal oils, are odorous, oily liquids obtained from plants and some animals, that evaporate readily at room temperature. They are characterized by their strong aroma and are often the source of a plant's characteristic fragrance.

These oils are typically mixtures of various organic compounds, primarily terpenes and their oxygenated derivative Examples: Turpentine, Anise, Coriander, Peppermint, Rosemary, Sandalwood, Cinnamon, Lemon, Caraway, Dill, Clove, Eucalyptus, Nutmeg, Camphor. Fixed oils and Fats: Fixed oils and fats are non-volatile oily substances obtained from plants or animals. They are esters of glycerol with fatty acids and differ primarily in their melting point, with fats being solid or semisolid and oils being liquid at room temperature.

Both are crucial in various applications, including medicinal uses, food, and cosmetics. Examples: Arachis, Castor, Chaulmoogra, Coconut, Cotton seed, Linseed, Olive, Sesame, Almond, Theobroma, Cod-liver, Halibut liver, Kokum butter. Animal Products: Animal products are the substances obtained from animals that are used as raw materials or ingredients in medicinal products, or that are used in the production of such products.

These can range from entire animals (like cantharides) to glandular products (like thyroid), or secretions like musk, and even include products like beeswax and certain hormones. Examples: Bees wax, Cantharides, Cod-liver oil, Gelatin, Halibut liver oil, Honey, Shark liver oil, shellac, Spermaceti wax, wool fat, musk, Lactose. References 1.

W.C.Evans, Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy, 16thedition, W.B. Sounders & Co., London, 2009. 2. Tyler, V.E., Brady, L.R. and Robbers, J.E., Pharmacognosy, 9th Edn., Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1988. 3.

Text Book of Pharmacognosyby T.E. Wallis 4. MohammadAli.

Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, CBS Publishers & Distribution, New Delhi.